SciELO – Brasil – Genetic variability of the 16S rRNA gene of Nocardia brasiliensis, the most common causative agent of actinomycetoma in Latin America and the Caribbean Genetic variability of the 16S rRNA gene of Nocardia brasiliensis, the most common causative agent of actinomycetoma in Latin America and the Caribbean

Mycetoma is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2016. It is characterized by the progressive growth of nodules and granulomatous lesions on the legs, arms, and trunk. It is potentially disfiguring and causes disability or amputations in working-age people from marginalized areas. The causative agents can be fungi (eumycetoma) or actinobacteria (actinomycetoma), the latter being the most common in America and Asia. Nocardia brasiliensis is the most important causal agent of actinomycetoma in the Americas. Taxonomic problems have been reported when identifying this species, so this study aimed to detect the 16S rRNA gene variations in N. brasiliensis strains using an in silico enzymatic restriction technique. The study included strains from clinical cases of actinomycetoma in Mexico, isolated from humans and previously identified as N. brasiliensis by traditional methods. The strains were characterized microscopically and macroscopically, then subjected to DNA extraction and amplification of the 16S rRNA gene by PCR. The amplification products were sequenced, and consensus sequences were constructed and used for genetic identification and in silico restriction enzyme analysis with the New England BioLabs® NEBcutter program. All study strains were molecularly identified as N. brasiliensis; however, in silico restriction analysis detected a diversity in the restriction patterns that were finally grouped and subclassified into 7 ribotypes. This finding confirms the existence of subgroups within N. brasiliensis. The results support the need to consider N. brasiliensis as a complex species.

Actinomycetoma; Neglected tropical disease; Nocardia brasiliensis. In silico enzymatic restriction; Genetic variability

Mycetoma is an anatomoclinical syndrome that has been classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a neglected tropical disease (NTD) as of 201611. World Health Organization. Neglected tropical diseases. [cited 2023 Feb 27]. Available from: www.who.int/health-topics/neglected-tropical-diseases#tab=tab_1
www.who.int/health-topics/neglec…
. It is characterized by subcutaneous granulomatous lesions of progressive and painless growth, with the presence of fistulas that drain a serohematic fluid and grains from which the causative biological agent can be isolated. They can produce nodules and abscesses, as well as a deformity in the affected areas, which, depending on their extension, can cause immobility, disability, and amputation of the affected limb. It has local dissemination, in some cases via the lymphatic route, which allows extension into contiguous or distant body regions22. Arenas R, Fernandez Martinez RF, Torres-Guerrero E, Garcia C. Actinomycetoma: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Cutis. 2017;99:E11-5.. The most common presentation is in the lower limbs (78.6%), with the upper limbs (4.0%) and the trunk (6.1%) presenting smaller percentage33. van de Sande WW. Global burden of human mycetoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2550.. It is usually diagnosed when the lesions present a significant extension in the affected region, which is sometimes irreversible44. Cárdenas-de la Garza JA, Welsh O, Cuéllar-Barboza A, Suarez-Sánchez KP, De la Cruz-Valadez E, Cruz-Gómez LG, et al. Clinical characteristics and treatment of actinomycetoma in northeast Mexico: a case series. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008123.. Mycetoma can be caused by fungi, called eumycetoma, or actinobacteria, called actinomycetoma55. van de Sande WW, Maghoub ES, Fahal AH, Goodfellow M, Welsh O, Zijlstra E. The mycetoma knowledge gap: identification of research priorities. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e2667..

The distribution of mycetoma is traditionally associated with the so-called ‘mycetoma belt’, located around the Tropic of Cancer. The affected countries have tropical or subtropical territories such as Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, India, Venezuela, Brazil and Mexico66. Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a global medical and socioeconomic dilemma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:e0005509.. A review study, which included 19,494 cases of mycetoma reported in articles from 1876 to 2019, revealed that the disease has been found in 102 countries, with Sudan (10,608 cases), Mexico (4,155 cases), and India (1,116 cases) being the most affected countries77. Emery D, Denning DW. The global distribution of actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008397.. Actinomycetoma predominates in the Americas and the Middle and Far East33. van de Sande WW. Global burden of human mycetoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2550.,77. Emery D, Denning DW. The global distribution of actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008397.. The regions where the pathology occurs are mainly rural, of low socioeconomic stratum, with scarce essential housing services and little access to health services, which hinders early detection and treatment while favoring the appearance of complications33. van de Sande WW. Global burden of human mycetoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2550.,88. Reis CM, Reis-Filho EG. Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review. An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93:8-18.,99. Hao X, Cognetti M, Burch-Smith R, Mejia EO, Mirkin G. Mycetoma: development of diagnosis and treatment. J Fungi (Basel). 2022;8:743.. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the most common agent for eumycetoma is Trematosphaeria grisea, while for actinomycetoma, it is Nocardia brasiliensis55. van de Sande WW, Maghoub ES, Fahal AH, Goodfellow M, Welsh O, Zijlstra E. The mycetoma knowledge gap: identification of research priorities. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e2667.,77. Emery D, Denning DW. The global distribution of actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008397.. The most aggressive presentation of the disease occurs in actinomycetoma44. Cárdenas-de la Garza JA, Welsh O, Cuéllar-Barboza A, Suarez-Sánchez KP, De la Cruz-Valadez E, Cruz-Gómez LG, et al. Clinical characteristics and treatment of actinomycetoma in northeast Mexico: a case series. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008123..

The pathogen enters through the skin, lesions, or open wounds. Farmers are especially susceptible since they do not have protective equipment at work, such as gloves or closed footwear. Patients often seek medical help when the disease has progressed, i.e., when the nodules start to grow or when they cause disability22. Arenas R, Fernandez Martinez RF, Torres-Guerrero E, Garcia C. Actinomycetoma: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Cutis. 2017;99:E11-5.,66. Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a global medical and socioeconomic dilemma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:e0005509.,88. Reis CM, Reis-Filho EG. Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review. An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93:8-18.. Treatment of actinomycetoma requires various antibiotic regimens, including sulfonamides, amikacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and amoxicillin. Treatments may require surgical intervention, such as amputation in the most severe cases22. Arenas R, Fernandez Martinez RF, Torres-Guerrero E, Garcia C. Actinomycetoma: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Cutis. 2017;99:E11-5.,44. Cárdenas-de la Garza JA, Welsh O, Cuéllar-Barboza A, Suarez-Sánchez KP, De la Cruz-Valadez E, Cruz-Gómez LG, et al. Clinical characteristics and treatment of actinomycetoma in northeast Mexico: a case series. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008123.,66. Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a global medical and socioeconomic dilemma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:e0005509..

Although it is a disease with clinical and epidemiological relevance, it is still poorly studied. The latest epidemiological reports of actinomycetoma in Latin America and the Caribbean were carried out in Mexico in 20131010. López-Martínez R, Méndez-Tovar LJ, Bonifaz A, Arenas R, Mayorga J, Welsh O, et al. Actualización de la epidemiología del micetoma en México: revisión de 3,933 casos. Gac Med Mex. 2013;149:586-92. and 20141111. Bonifaz A, Tirado-Sánchez A, Calderón L, Saúl A, Araiza J, Hernández M, et al. Mycetoma: experience of 482 cases in a single center in Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e3102., and in Brazil in 20171212. Sampaio FM, Wanke B, Freitas DF, Coelho JM, Galhardo MC, Lyra MR, et al. Review of 21 cases of mycetoma from 1991 to 2014 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:e0005301.; all reports came from mycological control centers, hospitals, and healthcare institutions. There are no mycetoma detection and control programs in Latin America11. World Health Organization. Neglected tropical diseases. [cited 2023 Feb 27]. Available from: www.who.int/health-topics/neglected-tropical-diseases#tab=tab_1
www.who.int/health-topics/neglec…
. Therefore, the actual prevalence and incidence figures are unknown. In 2021, a bibliometric analysis estimated that, in the last 23 years worldwide, only about 20 articles per year have been published about this disease1313. Musa HH, Musa TH, Musa IH, Musa IH. Global scientific research progress in mycetoma: a bibliometric analysis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2021;115:1414-26.. As a result, studies on the causal agent of actinomycetoma are also scarce.

From 2012 to the present date, there are only 52 publications on N. brasiliensis. Of these, only four have studied its genetic variability and susceptibility to antibiotics1414. Chen KW, Lu CW, Huang TC, Lu CF, Liau YL, Lin JF, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of Nocardia brasiliensis infection in Taiwan during 2002-2012-clinical studies and molecular typing of pathogen by gyrB and 16S gene sequencing. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;77:74-8.

15. Schlaberg R, Fisher MA, Hanson KE. Susceptibility profiles of Nocardia isolates based on current taxonomy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:795-800.

16. Kosova-Maali D, Bergeron E, Maali Y, Durand T, Gonzalez J, Mouniée D, et al. High intraspecific genetic diversity of Nocardia brasiliensis, a pathogen responsible for cutaneous nocardiosis found in France: phylogenetic relationships by using sod and hsp65 Genes. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:7314054.1717. Toyokawa M, Ohana N, Ueda A, Imai M, Tanno D, Honda M, et al. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Nocardia species clinically isolated in Japan. Sci Rep. 2021;11:16742.. With so little information, it is still considered a homogeneous species, which could cause inadequate epidemiological reporting and complicate the clinical approach. This also fails to consider the responses to treatment depending on its possible genetic variations; taking this into account, the study aimed to analyze, from a current perspective, the genetic variability of N. brasiliensis isolated from cases of actinomycetoma in Mexico.

Study strains

The study included 52 strains from samples of clinical cases of actinomycetoma, previously identified as N. brasiliensis by traditional methods. The isolation sites of the lesions were the foot, arm, trunk, lung, head and neck. The clinical cases were held in healthcare institutions in Mexico. In addition, two type strains of the same species were included as controls, ATCC 19296 (NR_041860) and DSM 43758 (NR_115828), for a total of 54 study strains.

Culture and growth

The strains, previously preserved in cryotubes at -20 °C, were reactivated in Sabouraud dextrose agar culture medium (BD Bioxon 210700, Mexico, Mexico) with the addition of 1% dehydrated potato and incubated for growth at 37 °C for 21 days. Characterization was performed by macroscopic and microscopic inspection with Gram staining for fragmented mycelia and Gram-positive branched filamentous cells.

DNA extraction

Biomass was obtained by inoculating the strains in Sabouraud dextrose liquid medium (BD Bioxon 222400, Mexico, Mexico) and incubating them in agitation at 37 °C for 30 days. Subsequently, the culture was placed in sterile conical tubes and centrifuged at 6000 X g for 5 min (Labnet, Spectrafuge 16M, Edison, NJ, USA); the biomass obtained was placed in 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes with sterile saline solution and centrifuged at 8,000 X g for 5 min. The pellet obtained was used for the DNA extraction process.

DNA extraction was performed with the Promega Wizard® Genomic kit (Promega A1125, Madison, USA). The presence and quality of DNA were verified by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis (Bioline BIO-41026, Meridian, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA) in the following conditions: 120 V, 300 μA, 30 min. Ethidium bromide was used as an intercalating agent (Sigma-Aldrich® E7637, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). DNA purity and concentration were determined by UV spectrophotometry (EPOCH, Agilent, Santa Clara, USA).

16S rRNA gene amplification

Amplification of the 16S rRNA gene was performed by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) in an Axygen® MaxyGene II Thermal Cycler (Axygen, Corning, Arizona, USA) using Taq DNA polymerase (Bioline, BIO-21105, Meridian, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA). The following universal primers were used: 27F: 5’-AGA GTT TGA TCM TGG CTC AG-3’ and 1492R: 5’-TAC GGT TAC CTT GTT GTT ACG ACT T-3’. The thermal cycling conditions were: one denaturation cycle of 5 min (94 °C); 30 denaturation cycles for 60 s (94 °C), annealing for 30 s (59 °C), elongation for 60 s (72 °C); finally, one elongation cycle of 10 min (72 °C). The amplified products were visualized in a 1% agarose gel under the previously clear conditions.

Purification and sequencing of PCR product

PCR product purification was performed using the ‘PCR Clean up System Promega’ kit (Promega A9282, Madison, USA), following the supplier’s instructions. The purity and concentration of the amplicon were checked by UV spectrophotometry (EPOCH, Agilent, Santa Clara, USA). The amplified and purified products were sent to the sequencing service of Psomagen (Maryland, USA).

Taxonomic assignment

The sequences obtained were reviewed and corrected using ChromasPro version 2.6.4 (Technelysium, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia). Consensus sequences were constructed using BioEdit version 7.0.9.0 (Nucleics, Woollahra, Sydney, Australia) and compared with sequences deposited in the EzBiocloud database1818. Yoon SH, Ha SM, Kwon S, Lim J, Kim Y, Seo H, et al. Introducing EzBioCloud: a taxonomically united database of 16S rRNA gene sequences and whole-genome assemblies. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2017;67:1613-7. to determine their percentage similarity.

In silico enzyme restriction

Consensus sequences were subjected to in silico enzymatic restriction with the New England BioLabs® NEBcutter virtual tool1919. Vincze T, Posfai J, Roberts RJ. NEBcutter: a program to cleave DNA with restriction enzymes. Nucleic Acids Res. 2003;31:3688-91.. Restriction patterns were obtained with the commercial enzymes available in the program’s database, with 169 enzymes showing cuts in the study sequences. Subsequently, the enzymes showing the best restriction patterns according to the number and size of the bands were chosen; these parameters were considered to establish the ribotypes.

In silico electrophoresis

With the virtual electrophoresis tool of the New England BioLabs® NEBcutter program, banding models were made simulating a 2% agarose gel and a 100 bp molecular marker, thus obtaining the restriction patterns of the evaluated strains.

Macroscopic and microscopic description

The reactivated strains were inspected macroscopically, according to the characteristics of their colonies, and microscopically with Gram stain. Macroscopically, colonies with irregular and acuminate growth, rough and dry texture, and the presence of aerial mycelium were observed. Differences between strains were also found, such as coloration, in which different shades of orange were notorious, and the appearance of growth, where the relief presented different depths and patterns. Microscopically, branched Gram-positive cells and fragmented mycelia were found in all cases.

Molecular identification

The 52 study strains were molecularly identified as N. brasiliensis with similarity percentages greater than 98% compared to the sequences available in the EzBioCloud database. The results are summarized in Table 1.

Restriction enzyme selection

Of the 169 enzymes in the New England BioLabs® NEBcutter database, the NspI and SfcI enzymes were selected for in silico restriction. Both showed good restriction patterns, suitable to be organized into ribotypes according to the number of cuts, size of bands generated, and distribution.

In silico enzyme restriction

The restriction patterns generated from the 54 sequences analyzed were classified into 7 clusters or ribotypes. All sequences showed cuts between 5 to 6 bands, with 57 bp and 469 bp lengths. Ribotype 1 integrated 31 sequences, the most extensive grouping, corresponding to 57.4% of the total, among which were the two type strains, ATCC 19296 and DSM 43758, used as controls in this study. The distribution of the 54 16S rRNA gene sequences according to the in silico restriction patterns generated with NspI and SfcI enzymes is shown in Table 1.

Virtual electrophoresis

Images of the restriction patterns of each sequence analyzed were obtained by in silico electrophoresis. The electrophoreses of each group and their comparison with the other groupings are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1
Virtual electrophoresis model comparison of 7 ribotypes of 16S rRNA gene obtained with NspI and SfcI enzymes in silico, with N. brasiliensis strains.

Figure 2
Virtual electrophoresis model of in silico digestion fragments of 16S rRNA genes of 54 N. brasiliensis strains, obtained with NspI and SfcI enzymes.

Mycetoma is a neglected tropical disease, highly disabling and predominantly observed in rural regions with poor health and housing services. Although its clinical manifestations are notable with the growth of nodules in visible regions of the body such as feet, legs, and arms, it is not usually treated until it presents a considerable extension, deformity, and disability that can lead to amputation22. Arenas R, Fernandez Martinez RF, Torres-Guerrero E, Garcia C. Actinomycetoma: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Cutis. 2017;99:E11-5.,44. Cárdenas-de la Garza JA, Welsh O, Cuéllar-Barboza A, Suarez-Sánchez KP, De la Cruz-Valadez E, Cruz-Gómez LG, et al. Clinical characteristics and treatment of actinomycetoma in northeast Mexico: a case series. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008123.,66. Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a global medical and socioeconomic dilemma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:e0005509.,88. Reis CM, Reis-Filho EG. Mycetomas: an epidemiological, etiological, clinical, laboratory and therapeutic review. An Bras Dermatol. 2018;93:8-18.,99. Hao X, Cognetti M, Burch-Smith R, Mejia EO, Mirkin G. Mycetoma: development of diagnosis and treatment. J Fungi (Basel). 2022;8:743.. Despite being a significant health problem that affects at-risk populations, few studies have addressed it, and today, it is still necessary to discuss the epidemiology, clinical evidence, and etiologic agents of mycetoma.

N. brasiliensis is the most important causative agent of actinomycetoma in Latin America and the Caribbean region77. Emery D, Denning DW. The global distribution of actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14:e0008397.. It is a Gram-positive actinomycete, acid-alcohol-resistant, with the formation of intertwined filaments and aerial mycelium22. Arenas R, Fernandez Martinez RF, Torres-Guerrero E, Garcia C. Actinomycetoma: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Cutis. 2017;99:E11-5.,2020. Gordon RE, Mihm JM. A comparison of Nocardia asteroides and Nocardia brasiliensis. J Gen Microbiol. 1959;20:129-35.. It was first mentioned in 19092121. Lindenberg A. Un nouveau mycétome. Arch Parasit. 1909;13:265-82. with the name Discomyces brasiliensis. Although it was first described phenotypically and biochemically in 19592020. Gordon RE, Mihm JM. A comparison of Nocardia asteroides and Nocardia brasiliensis. J Gen Microbiol. 1959;20:129-35., its current name was only included in the ‘Approved Lists of Bacterial Names’ in 19802222. Parte AC. LPSN: list of prokaryotic names with standing in nomenclature (bacterio.net), 20 years on. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2018;68:1825-9.,2323. Skerman VB, McGowan V, Sneath PH, editors. Approved lists of bacterial names (amended). Washington: ASM Press; 1989.. However, its peculiarities and taxonomic problems have not been solved, especially the detection of variations that indicate a poorly studied diversity within the same species1414. Chen KW, Lu CW, Huang TC, Lu CF, Liau YL, Lin JF, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of Nocardia brasiliensis infection in Taiwan during 2002-2012-clinical studies and molecular typing of pathogen by gyrB and 16S gene sequencing. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;77:74-8.

15. Schlaberg R, Fisher MA, Hanson KE. Susceptibility profiles of Nocardia isolates based on current taxonomy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:795-800.

16. Kosova-Maali D, Bergeron E, Maali Y, Durand T, Gonzalez J, Mouniée D, et al. High intraspecific genetic diversity of Nocardia brasiliensis, a pathogen responsible for cutaneous nocardiosis found in France: phylogenetic relationships by using sod and hsp65 Genes. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:7314054.1717. Toyokawa M, Ohana N, Ueda A, Imai M, Tanno D, Honda M, et al. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Nocardia species clinically isolated in Japan. Sci Rep. 2021;11:16742..

In this study, taking as a sample a collection of 52 strains isolated from clinical cases of actinomycetoma and previously identified by traditional methods, their identity as N. brasiliensis was confirmed by sequencing the 16S rRNA gene; however, when approaching a technique capable of analyzing the polymorphic fragments of the gene, the results obtained differentiate them from each other.

The distribution of the study sequences into 7 well-defined and distinct groups demonstrates the variability within the 16S rRNA gene. A significant group is represented by the two type strains and composed of 55.4% of the total sequences. The rest of the sequences form clusters with different restriction patterns showing the discrepancy between strains of the same study species, thus conforming 6 more ribotypes. The results suggest the existence of subgroups within N. brasiliensis with more significant variability than previously reported1414. Chen KW, Lu CW, Huang TC, Lu CF, Liau YL, Lin JF, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of Nocardia brasiliensis infection in Taiwan during 2002-2012-clinical studies and molecular typing of pathogen by gyrB and 16S gene sequencing. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;77:74-8.

15. Schlaberg R, Fisher MA, Hanson KE. Susceptibility profiles of Nocardia isolates based on current taxonomy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:795-800.

16. Kosova-Maali D, Bergeron E, Maali Y, Durand T, Gonzalez J, Mouniée D, et al. High intraspecific genetic diversity of Nocardia brasiliensis, a pathogen responsible for cutaneous nocardiosis found in France: phylogenetic relationships by using sod and hsp65 Genes. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:7314054.1717. Toyokawa M, Ohana N, Ueda A, Imai M, Tanno D, Honda M, et al. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Nocardia species clinically isolated in Japan. Sci Rep. 2021;11:16742..

The results coincide and reaffirm those presented in other studies using different methods. Variations within antibiotic susceptibility profiles have previously been detected. In 2014, Schlaberg et al.1515. Schlaberg R, Fisher MA, Hanson KE. Susceptibility profiles of Nocardia isolates based on current taxonomy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:795-800. reported significant differences within ceftriaxone susceptibility profiles of 148 strains of N. brasiliensis obtained from clinical cases, where the rate of resistance was 51%, demonstrating the intraspecies variability by this method. Coinciding with this, in 2021, Toyokawa et al.1717. Toyokawa M, Ohana N, Ueda A, Imai M, Tanno D, Honda M, et al. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Nocardia species clinically isolated in Japan. Sci Rep. 2021;11:16742. reported an antibiotic susceptibility study that 14 clinical strains of N. brasiliensis showed 57% resistance to ceftriaxone, 21% susceptibility, and 21% intermediate response.

Also, genetic variations have been detected within N. brasiliensis. The article published by Chen et al.1414. Chen KW, Lu CW, Huang TC, Lu CF, Liau YL, Lin JF, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of Nocardia brasiliensis infection in Taiwan during 2002-2012-clinical studies and molecular typing of pathogen by gyrB and 16S gene sequencing. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;77:74-8. in 2013 performed genotyping of the gyrB gene of 12 strains of N. brasiliensis obtained from clinical cases, reporting variations that distributed the strains into two large groups that, in addition, showed differences in terms of clinical characteristics, such as the presence of lymphadenitis and susceptibility to imipenem.

In the study published by Kosova-Maali et al.1616. Kosova-Maali D, Bergeron E, Maali Y, Durand T, Gonzalez J, Mouniée D, et al. High intraspecific genetic diversity of Nocardia brasiliensis, a pathogen responsible for cutaneous nocardiosis found in France: phylogenetic relationships by using sod and hsp65 Genes. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:7314054. in 2018, where they worked with 36 strains of N. brasiliensis obtained from clinical cases, they were able to identify three well-defined genotypes by polymorphisms of the constitutive genes hsp65 and sodA; this finding related the genotype and clinical presentation of actinomycetoma among the different strains. In addition, the similarity percentages with reference strains were reported to range from 99.39% to 99.57%.

To broaden and deepen the genetic variability found, highly discriminatory studies such as enzyme restriction could be performed on other constitutive genes in N. brasiliensis. In silico enzyme restriction studies are useful for expanding the number of enzymes available in the assay and thus making an appropriate choice of enzymes2424. Schumann P, Pukall R. The discriminatory power of ribotyping as automatable technique for differentiation of bacteria. Syst Appl Microbiol. 2013;36:369-75.

25. Aravena P, Pulgar R, Ortiz-Severín J, Maza F, Gaete A, Martínez S, et al. PCR-RFLP detection and genogroup identification of Piscirickettsia salmonis in field samples. Pathogens. 2020;9:358.2626. Keramati M, Aslani MM, Roohvand F. In silico design and in vitro validation of a novel PCR-RFLP assay for determination of phylogenetic clusters of streptokinase gene alleles in streptococci groups. Microb Pathog. 2020;139:103862., but they are also useful for reducing costs and materials in the experiment because they have a high coincidence with the results shown in vitro2626. Keramati M, Aslani MM, Roohvand F. In silico design and in vitro validation of a novel PCR-RFLP assay for determination of phylogenetic clusters of streptokinase gene alleles in streptococci groups. Microb Pathog. 2020;139:103862.

27. Kumar PN, Prasad YG, Prabhakar M, Shanker AK, Bhanu D. Molecular and in silico Characterization of Achaea janata Granulovirus Granulin Gene. Interdiscip Sci. 2017;9:528-39.

28. Pérez-López E, Olivier CY, Luna-Rodríguez M, Dumonceaux TJ. Phytoplasma classification and phylogeny based on in silico and in vitro RFLP analysis of cpn60 universal target sequences. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2016;66:5600-13.2929. Vendrami DL, Forcada J, Hoffman JI. Experimental validation of in silico predicted RAD locus frequencies using genomic resources and short read data from a model marine mammal. BMC Genomics. 2019;20:72..

Previously, in silico enzymatic restriction studies have demonstrated the intraspecies genetic variability in other bacteria, such as identifying clusters and subclusters in the streptokinase gene of Streptococcus2626. Keramati M, Aslani MM, Roohvand F. In silico design and in vitro validation of a novel PCR-RFLP assay for determination of phylogenetic clusters of streptokinase gene alleles in streptococci groups. Microb Pathog. 2020;139:103862., the identification of E. coli genotypes, which also suggested updating the existing classifications3030. Kotłowski R, Grecka K, Kot B, Szweda P. New approaches for Escherichia coli genotyping. Pathogens. 2020;9:73.. Its usefulness was also proven in constructing new classifications in the study species, with a highly reliable discrimination power, such as the one performed using the cpn60 gene of phytoplasmas2828. Pérez-López E, Olivier CY, Luna-Rodríguez M, Dumonceaux TJ. Phytoplasma classification and phylogeny based on in silico and in vitro RFLP analysis of cpn60 universal target sequences. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2016;66:5600-13.. Employing enzymatic restriction of the 16S rRNA gene, variations of pathogenic bacteria, such as P. salmonis, have also been described, detecting differences between the LF-89 and EM-90 genotypes2525. Aravena P, Pulgar R, Ortiz-Severín J, Maza F, Gaete A, Martínez S, et al. PCR-RFLP detection and genogroup identification of Piscirickettsia salmonis in field samples. Pathogens. 2020;9:358.. Thus, this study is the first to address the genetic variability of N. brasiliensis through the in silico enzymatic restriction technique in the 16S rRNA gene.

Exposing and delving into the existence of diversity within the same species with medical and epidemiological relevance, such as N. brasiliensis, helps to understand part of the taxonomic complexity it presents and contribute to its knowledge and epidemiological report in the future.

With the previous reports and the results obtained in this study, it is supported that N. brasiliensis is a complex of species. In this study, seven possible groups within the complex have been established. Establishing this actinomycete as a species complex is essential for its taxonomic understanding and properly informing its epidemiology.

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